How to teach Grammar?

How to teach Grammar?

I would like to explain how the PIASP teaching method is conform to CBA and bloom's taxonomy. First let me say that if there was no Bloom there wouldn't be CBA . I tackled this Topic with my trainees last year "How to teach Grammar " here you are what I did and pardon me to be a bit long :

1. After Performing a PPU or PDP Lesson &
Once the learners have acquired the new functional Language learning they need to see the Structural One ( grammar)
2. Learners need to see the Language Form supported in the Functional language learning
3. Bloom’s taxonomy in our teaching system
The Competency-Based Approach is a cognitive approach. It is indeed indebted to Bloom’s taxonomy (Cf. Bloom, B. et al , Taxonomy of Educational Objectives vol 1 ‘The Cognitive Domain’ and vol 2, ‘The Affective Domain’, New York: Mckay, New York, 1964) . Bloom has claimed that all educational objectives can be classified as “cognitive” (to do with information and “affective” (to do with attitudes, values and emotions) or “psychomotor” (to do with bodily movements, such as setting up some apparatus). He has said that cognitive objectives form a hierarchy by which the learner must achieve lower order objectives before s/he can achieve higher ones. (see Table 1 below).
Knowledge 1 recalls knowledge Comprehension
2 Learner analyses information by separating information into parts
Application 3 Learner applies knowledge to new situations
Analysis 4 split into parts for better understanding
Synthesis 5 Learner builds new knowledge from diverse elements
Evaluation 6 Learner sets a value on the new information
(Table 1 Adpated version of Bloom’s Taxonomy)
Bloom’s hierarchical model of cognitive thinking is illustrated in the importance that the Competency-Based Approach in the Middle School Syllabus accords to the mobilisation of knowledge and skills, their gradual integration at higher levels (from level 1 to 6 in the table above), their application to new situations of learning or use, the generation of new knowledge and skills and finally the evaluation of the process and product of thinking. This is the ideal route to the acquisition of competency called a savoir-agir in the syllabus. For instance, a learner will need to know a principle before s/he can understand it. S/he must understand it before s/he can apply it. S/he should be able to cut it into smaller fragments and relate it to other principles (analysis) before s/he can summarise it and draw conclusions, and thus evaluate it.
Source” Programme D’anglais MS1 level
Teaching Grammar With Bloom's Taxonomy
Integrate English grammar naturally into everyday language arts lessons. Using Bloom's Taxonomy, lead students to appreciate grammar.
Grammar needn't be a word that inspires eye rolling amongst students. Show students that English grammar and the eight parts of speech in all they read. Teachers know that teaching grammar is important because when students grasp the foundation of language, they improve their spoken and written communication. Empower students with this information, and then start a dialogue focusing on grammar.
Grammatical terms and patterns cannot be covered through one lesson plan or unit, so it they should be taught through a continuum of discussion and gradual advancement of difficulty. Because English grammar is in all parts of writing and reading, use complete immersion for teaching. Follow Bloom's Taxonomy as you introduce concepts in English grammar and parts of speech.
Knowledge:
Acknowledge that students already possess knowledge of grammar even though they may not know it. Students who read and write have an understanding of English grammar, such as parts of speech and parts of a sentence. Start with the basics, and show students examples of words that describe, words that are objects or people, and words that show action from within their text

Comprehension:
Define the eight parts of speech — nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Have students create posters with a definition and an example for each part of speech to display in the classroom display. After students comprehend the terms, apply them to their reading by pointing out examples.
Application:
Apply terms to sentence structures and examine where basic sentence parts fall. Explain that parts of speech are used in different parts of a sentence. For example, a noun can be in the subject, direct object, predicate word, indirect object or object of a preposition position. Build these ideas naturally, as the class sees them while reading. Students understand complex topics like grammar better when ideas are taught in context.
Analysis:
Show how punctuation rules work to make a text easier to read. Explain punctuation within quotation marks. Demonstrate the different uses for a semicolon. Analyze situations that provide contradictions and exceptions to rules. For instance, discuss commas and their tricks. Look at the debate over serial commas. Show students that grammar has leeway, and some ideas are debatable.
Synthesis:
Students will differentiate between different grammatical parts, and "tear apart" sentences to decide which sub-types these parts are. You may need to return to memorizing charts as students' knowledge of grammar progresses. For instance, students may recognize a word as a pronoun, but they will need to learn the difference between subjective, nominative and objective pronouns as well as the singular and plural form of each. Knowing the type of pronoun will aid in understanding proper pronoun use, such as using the objective form for the object of a preposition.
Evaluation:
As you continue teaching grammar, students will recognize that grammatical formations differ enough to have different names. Begin adding more difficult grammatical sub-parts (such as verbals) as students show the ability to evaluate the basics and make informed decisions concerning syntax. Review the eight parts of speech as necessary and continue explaining grammar in all forms of communication.
Language arts classes too often lack English grammar instruction. Knowing the foundation of a language provides learning opportunities beyond schoolwork. Grammar should not be taught as an individual unit of instruction. Instead, teach it every day so students realize it is part of their language, and that they can understand it.
Copyright Lauralee Moss

Teaching grammar can be done using PIASP Teaching Method So
What is PIASP?

P = Presentation
< Presenting the context in which the grammatical structure appears >
Aim: To get the learner see the structure- its form and meaning-in contest.
so here your learners will deal with the first Bloom's taxonomy category .
Knowledge < Learners recall knowledge: where they will define and identify the structure seen before .
• The Learner will do that if he = defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states

I =Isolation
The focus is temporarily on the grammatical item itself.
Aim: get the learner perceive & recognize the grammatical item what it looks like .
This goes also with the second category of Bloom's taxonomy Comprehension: where your learners will be able to infer, interpret, paraphrase, predict, rewrite, summarize.
A= Analysis
Here you will try to make your learners analyse the isolated items.
Aim: To get the learner perceive how they are formed ,how they function and what they mean, in short what rules govern them. The objective is that the learner should understand the various aspects of the structure.
This has a great link with the fourth category Analysis" (Bloom’s Taxonomy) where your learners will be able to: analyse, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.
S = Stating rule
Here after they analyse you help them to formulate the grammar rule
And this what Bloom called "Synthesis" where the learners are able to Build a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure through the following key words
"Reconstruct, relate, reorganize, revise, rewrite, summarize, tell, write.
P= Practice <Written /Oral Work>
The practice stage consists of a series of exercises. Three (3) Types of tasks may be included
a- Based form task: Mechanical manipulation
< All the learners have to do is to produce the
Correct form. They get practice is SAYING or WRITING
The new structure (manipulation of the written and spoken Form) but do not use it to express meaning.
Focus is on Form only>
b- Meaning based task: Focus is on meaning. This time the production of the correct forms involves meaning as well and cannot be done without Comprehension (they cannot be done through mere mechanical manipulation)

c- Communicative based task: (emphasis is on transmitting message) the target structure is used “To say” and “do things”.

Samples of Grammar Items in our Manuals

Teaching Grammar in MS1 Book “”Spot Light on English
1. File One (Hello) Reminder page 36
2. File 2 (Family & friends) Reminder page 57
3. File 3 (Sports) Reminder page 76
4. File 4 (In & Out) Reminder page 98
5. File 5 (Environment) Reminder page 161

Teaching Grammar in MS2 Book ”Spot Light on English Book 2
1. File 1 : A person’s Profile : Reminder Sequence 1 page 11/ Reminder sequence 2 page 15/Reminder Sequence 3 page 19.
2. File Two:” Language Games: Reminder Sequence 1Page31/ Reminder Sequence 2 page 34 /Reminder Sequence 3 page 39
3. File 3: Health: Reminder sequence 1 page 54. Reminder Sequence 2 page59 / Reminder sequence 3 page 63 + Reminder File 5 “Food” page 118.
4. File Four: Cartoon. Reminder sequence 1 page77/ Reminder Sequence 2 age 82 / Reminder sequence 3 page 87.
5. File Five “Theatre) . Reminder sequence 1 page 100/ reminder sequence 2 page104/reminder sequence 3 page 108.

Teaching Grammar in MS3 ”Spot Light on English Book 3

1. File 1 “Communication “ Sequence 1 < Your Turn> page 21. / Sequence 2 (Your Turn page 29)/Sequence 3 (Your Turn page 36)
2. File 2:”Travel” Sequence 1 < Your Turn page 59> /Sequence 2 < Your Turn page 67>/ Sequence 3 < Your Turn page 75>
3. File 3: “Work & Play” Sequence 1 <Your Turn page 97> /Sequence 2 <Your Turn page 102> / Sequence 3 < Your Turn page 108>
4. File Four “ Around the World” : Seqence1 < Your Turn page 132> / Sequence 2 <Imagine page 139>/ Sequence 3 < Your Turn page 146

Teaching Grammar in MS4 Book “”On the Move”
1. File 1 : “ It’s my treat” < Grammar windows page 19/22.
2. File 2 “ You can do it” <Grammar windows page 44 & 47>
3. File 3 : “Great Expectations” < Grammar windows pages 68 & 71>
4. File 4 : “Then & Now” <Grammar windows pages 93&97>
5. File 5 :”Dreams, Dreams….<Grammar windows page 120 & 123>
6. File 6 : “Fact & Fiction” < Grammar Windows pages 144 & 147>

Sample of PIASP grammar item form the MS1 level manual

MS1 level File 2 ( Family & Friends)
Presentation :
A : Who is that ? B :That is Jim my friend . He is from England.

Isolation : who that he
Analysis :who= « wh question word » « that » demonstrative « he » = pronoun
Stating rule :
« whqq »+verb »obj+ ? / Demonstrative+S+V+obj »
« who » ⇒ « wh question word »
« that /this » ⇒ ”demonstrative »
« he /she » ⇒ « personal pronouns »
Practice:
Based form Task:
Exercise: Re-order the words to make correct questions.
1- Sally/ is / who/?/ à
2- English/ she /is/?/à
3- from/ is/?/she/where/ à
Meaning based task:
Exercise : Match the pair
sentence Meaning
1- Sally is English a- age.
2- Sally is 10. b- family member
3- Sally is Tina’s sister. c- nationality .
Communicative based task:
Activity 'a'p46 : Complete the conversation.
Sally : Look. This is Charles.
Aminata : Is he your brother ?
Sally : Yes, he is .He 's a student et the university of Manchester.
Aminata : And, who is this
Sally : It's / He's my uncle.
Aminata : what's his name ?
Sally : His name is Peter.
Aminata : Is he in Manchester, too ?
Sally : No, he is not. He 's in Londonondo

N.B:
1. Time will not permit to tackle the Functional learning
Objectives & the structural ones in the same séance so if teachers
Can reach the Stating rule of the PIASP teaching method , they
Will be able to tackle the Practice (Phase) in the next séance .
2. Teachers can also consolidate the grammar items with extra tasks ( worksheets) to be done as home works

Pedagogical Principles of Teaching English

Pedagogical Principles

The English teaching Pedagogical Principles are based on the conclusions of the latest brain-based learning research, with a specific focus on the factors driving the motivation of teens and young adult language learners. Our approach uses elements of the Lexical and Communicative approaches in English Language Teaching pedagogy adapted to an online environment; and input from a wide range of EFL professionals on how specific forms and formats of authentic materials; game-like interfaces and experiences, and social network communication create optimal conditions for learning. 

1.    Meaningful Context: All exercises, quizzes, polls, comments, games and social communication on English Attack! occurs in the context of specific content, giving it meaning. You will never encounter a disembodied, out-of-context vocabulary list on English Attack!

2.    More, better input leads to more, better output: The biggest problem with most language learning occurring in a non-immersive environment (i.e. outside the country of the target language) is that learners are simply not exposed to enough input, over the course of the days, weeks and months, to develop recognition of the lexis, patterns and uses of the language being studied. English Attack ! is designed to help increase that exposure by packaging it in short-format, assisted, interactive units based on forms of online entertainment that are already part of the media and leisure consumption behavior of teen and young adult learners outside of their language-learning endeavors.

3.    100% Authentic Materials: The role of English Attack! is not to compete with language teachers and classrooms in clarifying structure, but rather to expose learners to real-life lexis, phonology, usage and use, with all their contradictions and exceptions. Thus all materials on the site are authentic, i.e. devised for a general English mother-tongue public and not artificially created for L2 learners.

4.    No grammar terminology: We believe that it is impossible to “explain” grammar rules using classic grammar terminology without making the clarification of usage more complex than it already is. As an alternative, we attempt to explain why a given form is used in a given situation (one just seen in a movie clip) as simply and briefly as possible. We follow up with an example showing the target usage taken from the transcript of the just-seen video; and drill the usage in a game-like interface so that the usage principle becomes a habit when the learner encounters similar contextual situations.

5.    No subtitles: Like many other ELT observers, we believe that the use of subtitles with video just makes the learner better at reading (whether in L1 or L2): it does not help with acquiring autonomy in listening and comprehending the gist of spoken English. All our video is thus unassisted on screen, forcing the learner to listen carefully and negotiate meaning using all audio-visual clues, from the setting and actions of the video to the expressions on the faces and the tones of voices of the actors or speakers. A transcript of the video (completed in part by the learner) is made available later in the exercise, but separate from the video, to allow scanning, detail reading, and vocabulary exploration.

6.  Immediate feedback and reward: Like videogames, our method embraces “failure” as a part of the learning process instead of penalizing it. Through trial and error, and immediate and continuous feedback, the learner starts to use new lexis in meaningful ways, and starts to acquire reflexes for correct usage in specific situations that build up over time in such a way as to be able to be recalled to deal with similar new situations.

7.  Discovery Learning approach: We feel that choice leads to motivation, which is why English Attack! users have a broad choice of topics, formats and interactions to choose from, ranging from videos of the latest Hollywood blockbusters to news reports to Visual Dictionaries, polls, and social networking. We feel that learners will naturally be attracted to the content and formats which stimulate them the most, and that in turn this stimulation will lead to better, faster learning through self-motivation.

8.    Goal-driven: Learners thrive on the challenge of a non-stressful but clearly goal-driven universe, even if that universe is a virtual, fun one. Thus we use points, badges, virtual currency, medals and status levels to keep the challenge levels high, while providing “just within reach” objectives to encourage and provide positive reinforcement when the objectives are reached. Most importantly, our goals do not penalize the beginner or slower learner in that they are not achievement-oriented (e.g. passing a placement or practice TOEIC test), but rather they purely reward effort, activity and communication. A beginner can thus obtain a score just as high as that of an advanced learner based on his or her time spent experiencing content and interacting with other learners on English Attack!

9.    Lexis is key – grammar as lexis: We fully subscribe to the Michael Lewis insight that “language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar.” Lexical phrases, especially if they are drawn from authentic materials, equip learners with far better tools for meaningful communication than a rules-driven approach, in recognition of the fact that we speak in language chunks, not language formulae. Over time, the patterns in the lexical phrases become familiar and create the basis of a subconscious awareness of proper structure.

10.    English as the world’s Lingua Franca: We do not favor any national variant of English over others. Learners today need to be able to communicate with native speakers of English from across the globe, as well as with proficient non-native speakers of English. Accordingly, we will expose learners to all variants – indicating when one has a particularly national, local or ethnic origin and use – and all accents.

11.    Meaning over 100% accuracy: Learners of English often become frustrated or even paralyzed by what they perceive as failure to achieve 100% accuracy across the four fundamental skills.  We want to chip away at this sense of failure by showing that far more comprehension and communicative effectiveness can be achieved than learners may think is possible, even with fairly complex authentic input material.

12.    Emotion leads to learning: Great scenes from films, breaking news reports on dramatic topics from around the world,  and music all generate emotion in ways that graded materials never can. We seek to use that emotion to optimize the condition for learning, which is far more effective when a learner’s emotions are involved – particularly at the adolescent and early adulthood ages which are our core focus.

13.    Everyday language is real language: We know that, once out in the real world of English, learners will be exposed to non-standard or idiomatic English as frequently – if not more frequently – than standard English. We thus include all forms of language – from idioms to slang to acronyms and cultural references – in our authentic materials input, and label each so that the learner knows when the language is standard and when it is not.

14.    Learning is best done in short bursts: In most cases, our learners will have other courses at school, or a job, or family duties, pulling at their schedule. English Attack! is thus designed to be used in short (15 – 30-minute) bursts, which fits both the “manageable chunk” approach in ELT and the short-form media and entertainment preferences (as seen with YouTube, Facebook, Twitter) of teens and young adults.

15.    A lexical term has just one definition in one context. Even though words or even phrases can have different meanings, the only meaning that is relevant to the learner at a given point in time – the moment the lexical term is encountered – is the meaning that is relevant to the specific context in which the term is being experienced. So we provide only that definition, and an example and exercises that go with that definition, rather than a whole range of definitions that would only create confusion.

16. Language via Social Interaction and Participation : By providing our learners with a community of other learners of English with whom they can play games, exchange comments and opinions, and make friends; and by rewarding community participation (voting, comments, content creation), we encourage the kind of free-form functional communication they will need to use most frequently in the real world. And because the English Attack! community is one of learners of English, they will tend to be less shy about expressing themselves than in a purely native-speaker immersive environment.

17.    Some L1 use and translation are OK: Although all our source material and exercises are exclusively in English, we provide the option of instruction on how to use the site, as well as navigation of the site and interstitial motivational messages, in the learner’s local language. We also provide localized translation tools, bilingual dictionaries and conversation guides. The truth is that most learners are at least partially mentally translating the L2 anyway; and — particularly for beginners — these “islands of familiarity” boost confidence and reassure learners that the site can be explored and used progressively in a stress-free manner.

18.    Drill, but make it fun: The concept of the “drill” is the baby which risks being thrown out with the bath-water in the move to a more communicative approach. On the contrary, repetition is a hugely useful tool in creating the mental patterns that will allow learners to use language more automatically. Our approach is to integrate repetition within casual online game mechanics to keep the tasks (always within a context) more entertaining for the learner and to create a sense of challenge and progress around the drill exercise. We also use repetition games to provide re-exposure to lexical and usage items weeks and months after the initial exposure, gradually building up the exposure so that it eventually becomes intake and then knowledge.

Techniques to Increase Listening Skills

Techniques to Increase Listening Skills

 

 There are different ways to listen depending on the environment the listener is located, whether it is at work, at school or even just listening in general. The listener needs to adapt to that environment to be able to listen actively and effectively. In other words, listening seems like an easy action and most people tend to believe that it doesn’t need any effort or skill to be better at it. As a matter of fact, some people may think that listening is an action that comes naturally but it is not the case. Furthermore, it is known that most people are able to speak at the rate of 175 to 200 words per minute but are capable of listening and processing over 600 to 1000 words per minute. Listening is can be difficult because the human brain does not use its full capacity to accomplish such a simple task. In addition, people are more worried about what they want to say and think their message is more important. Given the fact that listening is a difficult skill to master, there are a few tips and techniques in order to be better at it. We will concentrate on listening in general, how to listen in the workplace, and how to listen in a classroom.


Techniques to improve listening skills in general

Listening in general is related to listening to your friends and family or simply when engaging a conversation. This type of listening is hard because most of the time people tend to get lost on their own thoughts or do not take the speaker seriously. However, there are ways to improve your listening skills in general. After reviewing different articles from different authors on how to improve our listening skills in general, we came to the conclusion that there at least eight to ten important techniques. In order to give an idea of all the tips for better listening, we only posted the most significant article. Listed below, you will find the main key points in order to listen effectively.

Face the speaker: adopt a position that will allow you to show the attentiveness through your body language. Also, transmitting non verbal communication, such as nodding your head, will make the speaker feel that you are listening.

Maintain eye contact: Again, to show that you are listening and to show your level of comfort.

Avoid external distraction: Make sure to avoid distractions such as any noise or activities that could prevent you from fully listening to your speaker.

Avoid internal distraction: Avoid getting lost in your thoughts and if it does happen, try to focus again on what the speaker is saying.


Provide feedback: When listening, it is very important to respond from time to time.

Try to maintain your attention on what the speaker is saying: Listen carefully and avoid thinking about what you are going to say. Only focus on the message the speaker is trying to transmit.

Be open-minded: Do not be judgmental while the message is being transmitted, wait until the speaker has finished.

Rephrase the message: After the message is transmitted you can rephrase in your own words what the speaker just said in order to make sure that you grasp the message.

Engage yourself: If you did not understand the essence of the message, do not hesitate to ask questions for some clarification. However, wait until the speaker is finished to avoid interrupting.

For more information on these techniques, here are some interesting websites:

Power to Change

7 Tips for Effective Listening

Listening Effectively


Techniques to improve listening in the workplace

Listening in the workplace, more specifically in the business environment is very important in order to succeed. As a matter of fact, “an individual with good listening ability is more likely to succeed; good listening enhances performance, leading to raises, promotions, status, and power.”(Bovée, 1995, p.630) In fact, in your everyday life at work, you need to listen to your customers, your colleagues and even your superiors. In order to be able to understand and meet the requirements of every request, listening carefully comes in handy. However, to become a good listener, some techniques need to be followed. Understandably the same techniques from listening in general as mentioned above apply to this kind of environment such as the workplace. To avoid redundancy, we will focus on how to conduct a business meeting in order to increase the level of retention.


Conducting an effective meeting for a better listening.

In general, meetings are called to share information, to solve problems, make a decision or to set objectives. Conducting an effective meeting requires some techniques to be followed. First key point is:

Determining the purpose and understanding the group dynamic:

When conducting a meeting there are several points that need to be taken under consideration so those said meeting turn out to be productive. Whenever calling a meeting, a purpose must be determined beforehand. However the dynamic of the group is also very important and will affect the outcome of the meeting, so understanding such dynamic is critical.

Determining the role of each individual:

Each individual plays a different role as a part of a group and impacts the outcome of the group’s activities. There are different roles such as the self-oriented role whose task is to control, withdraw, seek attention and divert. Then, we have the group-maintenance role that takes care of encouraging, harmonizing, and compromising. Last, we have the task-facilitating role that makes sure to initiate, to seek or give information and to coordinate the activities among the group. For more details on these specific tasks, more information can be found in this book:

Locker, K. O. (1989). Business and administrative communication. Homewood, IL : Irwin. p.643

Arranging the meeting:

Now that we know the different roles of each individual of the group, the next step is to arrange the meeting to make it efficient. To ensure an effective meeting, predetermining the purpose as mentioned above is vital. Also, planning the agenda, setting the participants and the location is important. By doing that, some problems can be avoided like drifting away from the main subject, the meeting lasting too long and most importantly to make sure that the participants listen until the end of the meeting. Furthermore, a meeting must be interactive, to ensure the level of retention from the participant. Encourage them to take notes and to ask questions if clarifications are needed.

For more information regarding this topic, visit this website.



Techniques to improve listening skills in a classroom

Many students have difficulties listening during a lecture for many reasons. For example, the subject and/or the instructor's way of teaching can be perceived as uninteresting. Either way, there are some techniques to overcome those difficulties. The following tips will be helpful to find a lecture more interesting and to increase the level of retention. Here are eight techniques to improve the listening skills in a classroom.


Make the subject useful: Instead of immediately judging the subject as dull, see it as new knowledge to learn. Doing so will help you find the subject more interesting.

Focus on the message the professor is transmitting: Avoid turning your attention on the professor’s physical attire such as clothes or at the way he delivers the material. Only focus on the message specifically.

When disagreeing with a piece of the material: Do not be judgmental and jump to a conclusion too quickly because you might miss an important piece of information by only focusing on your thoughts. Wait until the end to make your opinion.

Identify the main concepts of the lecture: By identifying those fundamental concepts, you will extract the essence of the lecture.

Find an effective note-taking structure: Adjust your note-taking along the structure of the lecture.

Pay attention to the lecture given: Avoid daydreaming; instead stay focused on the material for the entire lecture session.

Listen carefully to hard material: When a hard subject lies ahead do not give up, instead work harder to increase your understanding and your level of comfort with that subject.

Get to know your professor: Don’t be judgmental against your teacher, try to know him on a more personal level such as his background.


For more details visit these interesting websites:

Classroom Listening Skills

Effective Listening: The Key to Classroom Attendance


To apply these techniques effectively, it is important to know the cultural and gender differences when listening. Doing so will help avoid misunderstanding between cultures and genders. For more information, here is an interesting section cultural and gender differences when listening.


References
Locker, K. O. (1989). Business and administrative communication. Homewood, IL : Irwin.

Bovée, C. L. (1995). Business communication today (5th ed.). New York, NY : McGraw-Hill.

The Difference Between The UK, England, And Great Britain

The Difference Between The UK, 

England, And Great Britain

 

The actual name of the sovereign state we are talking about is The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK). The United Kingdom is made up of the countries England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The confusion of the terms seems to revolve around the term “country” and the political powers that are perceived based on that word. While the four countries that make up the UK are considered separate in the minds of locals, and in certain sporting events, their powers for local law and control are devolved from the UK. Think of the 50 states of the United States, while each state has their own set of laws, they all are still under the power of the federal government. In the case of the UK, it is somewhat similar, though certain responsibilities are also implied, like healthcare and education, that are delegated to three of the four countries. The responsibilities that are delegated differ from one country to the next. England is the only country in which the UK does not devolve any powers and instead it is legislated directly by the UK government. When it comes to international politics, it is the sovereign nation of the UK that is recognized and not any of the four constituent countries.

The term “Great Britain” refers to the land mass that comprises England, Scotland, and Wales. Something that aids in the confusion as to the difference between Great Britain and the UK is that the term is sometimes internationally used as a synonym for the UK.  For instance, the UK’s Olympic team competes under the name “Great Britain” and the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) gives the UK the country codes of GB and GBR. This can be confusing given that the ISO also codes England, Scotland, and Wales as subdivision countries of the UK but Northern Ireland as a subdivision province. If you’re getting the impression that Northern Ireland is the red-headed stepchild of the UK, you may be right! (both figuratively and literally, if you believe the current statistics for redheaded populations that is)

The confusion over the definition of these four countries, in reference to the UK, is further muddied up in sporting competitions. There are several international sporting events, like the commonwealth games, and football competitions, in which each of the four has their own team, and do not compete under a unified national team. When competing under these conditions, their nations are referred to as “home nations”. Because each team is from a specific home country, it can lead some to think these countries have political autonomy as well. Given the inebriated thought processes attained during the enjoyment of these competitions, it’s not too hard to understand where this drunken confusion comes from.

If you’re curious when these unions between the countries that comprise the UK came about, it happened as follows:  England and Wales were joined in 1536.  Scotland and England were joined together in 1707, along with the previously joined Wales, to officially form the Kingdom of Great Britain.  Ireland decided to join up in 1801, at which point the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed.  In 1922, however, many of the Southern counties of Ireland decided to remove themselves from the union and the UK changed their name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

So in summary:

• Great Britain = England, Scotland, and Wales
• UK = England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (and the full name is the “United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland”)
• England = Just the part of the island that is England

Bonus Facts:

• The “Union Jack”, the flag of the UK was initially made by superimposing the Flag of England with the Flag of Scotland in 1606.  When Ireland joined up in 1801, Saint Patrick’s Flag was added to the composition.
• The first peoples of the UK were the Picts who inhabited Briton around 10,000 BC. Two centuries later, they were driven north to Scotland by the Celts who promptly took over. The Romans then conquered in 45 AD and ruled for several more centuries. From around 600AD to around 900AD several peoples known as Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began to populate and govern the area. They became known as Anglo-Saxons. Then between 900 and 1400 came the conquering Vikings, then Danish, and finally the Normans. After that, in 1485 Henry Tudor claimed the English crown and the rest of British rule is an incestuous line of Kings and Queens of the monarchy leading to that handsome Prince William Mountbatten-Windsor and his lovely wife Kate!
• The United Kingdom ranks 28^th on the Human Development Index. This index is a comparative statistic that measures a countries “human development” based on factors like life expectancy, literacy, education, and standards of living, like income potential. Unfortunately for those Northern Ireland folks, their neighbors to the south who left the UK without them, living in the Republic of Ireland, rank 7th.
• The top five countries on the Human Development Index are: 1- Norway 2- Australia 3- Netherlands 4- United States and 5- New Zealand. The bottom five countries for human development are: Chad, Mozambique, Burundi, Niger, and The Democratic Republic of Congo. So based on these statistics, you can assume you lost the ovarian lottery if you were born in Africa somewhere!
• The United Kingdom has 14 overseas territories and 3 crown dependencies that do not make up part of the UK itself. Crown dependencies differ from territories in that they are the possessions of “The Crown”, and as such, sovereignty over them lies with the Queen (or King, as the case may be). The executive responsibilities for them are carried out by Her/His Majesty’s Government. The 14 overseas territories are under the sovereignty of UK itself, and not solely the ruling monarch.
• As of July 9, 2011, there are 195 independent sovereign states in the world. This includes independent Taiwan. So if you’re Chinese, you might consider that there are only 194, but who’s counting anyway? The last country to gain recognition as an independent state was the Republic of South Sudan in July of 2011.
• The UK does not have a single judicial system; instead, it has three separate systems. These systems are Northern Ireland law, Scots law, and English law. As you might expect, English law governs Wales as well. There are a few instances where there are laws that have jurisdiction throughout all of the UK, immigration law being one; further, employment law is recognized in the three countries of Great Britain proper. The UK has four separate educational systems, and four separate healthcare systems as a result of both being devolved to each separate country.
• London is not only the capital of England, but is also the capital of the UK.  The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh.  The capital of Wales is Cardiff.  Finally, the capital of Northern Ireland is Belfast.
• The national anthem of the UK is “God Save the Queen”, though the lyrics are changed to “God Save the King”  when the ruling monarch is a man.  One can only imagine the confusion and tumult at sporting events directly after the death of the ruling monarch where the gender of the heir is different than that of their predecessor and some people have heard of the death and others haven’t.

Why We Call the Seasons Summer, Autumn, Winter, and Spring

 Well, let's start :

“Winter” derives from the Proto-Germanic *wentruz, meaning winter.  This in turn probably comes from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *wed, meaning “wet”.  Alternatively, it may come from the PIE *wind-, meaning “white”.  Either way, the Proto-Germanic *wentruz gave rise to the Old English “winter” as the fourth season of the year and the name for the season has stuck around ever since.

 

“Spring”, referring to a season rather than the many other meanings of the word, first popped up in the 16th century.  Starting in the 14th century, this time of year was called “springing time” and then in the 15th century this got shortened to “spring-time”, and then further shortened in the 16th century to just “spring”.  The 14th century “springing time” came about in reference to plants “springing” from the ground and the like.  Before the season was called these things, it was called “Lent” in Old English.

“Summer” came from the Old English name for the season “sumor”, which in turn came from the Proto-Germanic *sumur-, which itself came from the Proto-Indo-European root *sam-, meaning summer. *sam- seems to be a variant of the Proto-Indo-European *sem- meaning “together / one”.

The origin of “fall” as a name for a season, rather than the more common “autumn”, is not perfectly clear, though it’s thought that it probably came from the idea of leaves falling from trees and many plants, particularly the contraction of the English saying “fall of the leaf”.  It first popped up as a name for a season in the later 16th century in England and became particularly popular during the 17th century, at which point it made its way over to North America.

Funny enough, calling autumn “fall” in England has since passed out of widespread practice, but has survived as a common name for the season in North America. This is not unlike how “soccer” was originally one of the most popular names for the sport in England around its inception and a long time after, which spread to North America, only to have the name die out in England, leading many to believe “soccer” is an “American” name for the sport, rather than one of the original names for it in England.

“Autumn” came to English via the Old French “autompne”, meaning autumn.  This in turn came from the Latin “autumnus”, also meaning “autumn”.  From here things get murky, but it’s thought “autumnus” probably came from an Etruscan word and is possibly related to the Latin “augere” meaning “to increase”.  Beyond that, nobody is quite sure why the season was originally called that.

Calling the season “autumn” in English first popped up in the 12th century, though was a rarity until around the 14th century.  It then began to pick up steam and became common in the 16th century, about the same time calling it “fall” popped up as the name for the season.  Before calling the season “autumn” or “fall” in English, it was called “harvest”.

Why the seasons are called “seasons”

The word “season” in this context comes from the Old French “seison”, meaning “sowing / planting”.  This in turn came from the Latin “sationem” meaning “sowing”. Initially this referred to actually sowing seeds, but later, as with the Old French “seison”, shifted definition to refer to the time period when you sow seeds, so literally “seed-time”.  “Season” in this sense in English popped up around the 13th century.  It was also around this time that “season” popped up referring to seasoning food- in this case from the Old French “assaisoner”, meaning “to ripen”.

 

the Origin of the Names of the Days of the Week

Why We Have a Seven Day Week and the Origin of the Names of the Days of the Week

 

Two of the earliest known civilizations to use a seven day week were the Babylonians and the Jews.  The Babylonians marked time with lunar months and it is thought by many scholars that this is why they chose a seven day week (though direct evidence of this being why they did this is scant). That being said, each lunar month was made up of several different cycles—on the first day, the first visible crescent appeared; on approximately the seventh, the waxing half-moon could be seen; on approximately the fourteenth, the full moon; on approximately the twenty-first, the waning half-moon; and on approximately the twenty-eighth, the last visible crescent. As you can see, each notable cycle is made up of about seven days, hence, the seven-day week.

You’ll notice I used the word “approximate” a lot in there.  This is because the moon phases don’t line up perfectly with this schedule.  As such, as far back as the 6th century BC (which incidentally is also around the time the Jews were captives in Babylon), the Babylonians would sometimes have three seven day weeks, followed by an 8-9 day week, presumably to re-synchronize the start and end of the weeks to match the phases of the moon.

In their normal seven day week, the Babylonians held the seventh day of each week as holy, much like the Jews did and still do.  However, the Babylonians also held the day to be unlucky.  Thus, similar to the Jews (but for a different reason- the unluckiness of the day), the seventh day had restrictions on certain activities to avoid dire consequences from the inherit unluckiness of the day. The final “seventh day” of the month for the Babylonians was a day of rest and worship.

By deistic decree, the Jews also followed a seven day cycle with the seventh day- the Sabbath-  to be a day of rest and worship.  In fact, the word “Sabbath” comes from the Hebrew “shabbath”, meaning “day of rest”, which in turn comes from the Hebrew “shabath”, meaning “he rested”- thus resting in homage to God resting on the seventh “day” after creating the universe. (Note: some biblical scholars believe the “day” here, in terms of six “days” to create the universe, one to rest, is more accurately translated as “period” or “interval” rather than a literal Earth day.  This is perhaps not unlike the “40 days and 40 nights” Jewish saying being a non-literal ancient Jewish expression simply meaning “a really long time”.)

Unlike the Babylonians, where it appears they were attempting to follow the lunar cycles with their seven day week, it isn’t known why the Jews picked seven days, outside of Christians and Jews of course believing that it was by the decree of God.

Whatever the case, the Ancient Romans, during the Republic, did not use a seven day week, but rather went with eight days.  One “eighth day” of every week was set aside as a shopping day where people would buy and sell things, particularly buying food supplies for the following week.

Rather than labeling the days of the week with actual names, at this time the Romans labeled them with letters, A-H.  You might think from this that the “H” was always the shopping day, but this isn’t correct.  You see, the calendar year did not divide evenly by eight.  Thus, the day of the week that was the day to go shopping changed every year, but they still often referred to days based on its proximity to the shopping day.

For reasons not entirely clear, within a century after the introduction of the Julian Calendar was introduced in 46 BC, the eight day week started to diminish in popularity in favor of the seven day week.  The full switch was not sudden, happening over centuries, and for a time, as the seven day week grew in popularity, both the seven and eight day weeks were used in Rome simultaneously.  Finally, after the popularity of the eight day week diminished to almost nothing, Constantine, the first Christian Roman Emperor, made the seven day week official in AD 321.  Due to the influence of both Rome and Christianity, this has stuck in most regions of the world ever since.

So now what about the origins of the names of the days of the week?  

Ancient Mesopotamian astrologers assigned each day the name of a god. The Greeks later called these days “theon hemerai”, or if that’s all Greek to you, “days of the Gods”. In a culture where days were consumed by religion, it’s only natural that the days of the week were made in homage to the gods thought to rule the lives of mortals. The days of the week follow the same trend as the months of the year, many of which (including January and March) are named after gods from several different pantheons.

The Romans, upon beginning to use the seven day week instead of the eight day, then adopted the names of the week to fit their own gods. The names of the week were then adopted by Germanic peoples. Despite Greek and Roman gods being the more popular and more well-known of the pantheons, it is largely the Germanic and Norse gods that have received the most credit and live on in the names of the days of the week today.

While different societies start the week on different days—usually Sunday or Monday—I’ll start with Monday, which was named for the moon. It could be translated as “Moon’s day”. This homage to the moon can be seen in several other languages as well. In Latin, it’s “dies lunae”, or “day of the moon”. In ancient Greek, “hemera selenes”, which means the same thing. In more modern languages, Monday is “lunes” in Spanish and “lundi” in French, both of which come from the root word for moon—”luna” and “lune” in each respective language.

Tuesday is the first to be named after a god. It was named for Tiu, or Twia, a lesser-known god of war and the sky from the English/Germanic pantheon. He is also associated with the Norse god Tyr, who was a defender god in Viking mythology. However, Tuesday does not translate the same in other languages. In Latin, it’s “dies Martis” or “Day of Mars” and in ancient Greek it’s “hemera Areos” or “day of Ares”. Both Mars and Ares were gods of war like Tyr and they lent their names to day of the week translations for other modern languages. Tuesday is “martes” in Spanish and “mardi” in French, both named for the Roman god Mars.

Wednesday can be translated as “Woden’s day”. Woden, associated with the Norse god Odin, was the chief god and leader of the wild hunt in Anglo-Saxon mythology. Directly translated, “woden” means “violently insane headship”, and does not put one in mind of the best of gods. Unlike the other days of the week, the gods named in the Latin and Greek days of the week – Mercury and Hermes —  are not associated with violent leadership, but with travel, commerce, and theft. Both are messenger gods. It is for Mercury that Spanish and French decided to name Wednesday—”miercoles” and “mercredi” respectively.

Thursday is one of the easiest days to translate, meaning “Thor’s day”. Named for the Norse god of thunder and lightning. Thursday is also associated with Jupiter in Latin (“dies Jovis”) and Zeus in Greek (“hemera Dios”). All three gods are known for their storm-creating abilities, but while the English language took Thor as its god for Thursday, Spanish and French adopted Jupiter instead, naming Thursday “jueves” and “jeudi” which have roots in Jupiter.

Friday is associated with Freya, the Norse goddess of love, marriage, and fertility. The Latin, “dies Veneris”, and the Greek, “hemeres Aphrodite”, call upon the goddesses Venus and Aphrodite instead. The latter two goddesses are also patrons of love and beauty, and all three goddesses are called upon in womanly matters like fertility and childbirth. Following the trend of the other days, Spanish and French adopted Venus for Friday rather than Freya, naming their days “viernes” and “vendredi”.

Saturday in English derives from “Saturn’s day” which was taken from the Latin, “dies Saturni”. Saturn was a Roman god and, over different periods of time, associated with wealth, plenty, and time. The day in Spanish and French (“sabado” and “samedi” respectively) was named simply as it is the Jewish Sabbath- “sabado” deriving from the Latin “sabbatum”, meaning “Sabbath”, and “samedi” deriving from the Old French “samedi”, which in turn comes from the Latin “dies Sabbati”, meaning “Day of the Sabbath”.

Sunday is “Sun’s day”, translated in both Latin (“dies solis”) and Greek (“hemera helio”) as “day of the sun”. Interestingly, in Spanish and French (“domingo” and “dimanche”) it is more closely translated as “Lord’s day” or “Sabbath day”, pointing to more the Christian/Jewish God.

ENJOY !

 

The Origin of the English Alphabet

Often considered one of the more difficult languages to master thanks to the incredible amount of inconsistencies in the language, it should come as no surprise that the development of the modern English alphabet involved several languages, hundreds of years and a variety of conquers, missionaries and scholars.

 

Origins of Alphabetic Writing
Dating back nearly four thousand years, early alphabetic writing, as opposed to other early forms of writing like cuneiform (which employed the use of different wedge shapes) or hieroglyphics (which primarily used pictographic symbols), relied on simple lines to represent spoken sounds. Scholars attribute its origin to a little known Proto-Sinatic, Semitic form of writing developed in Egypt between 1800 and 1900 BC.
Building on this ancient foundation, the first widely used alphabet was developed by the Phoenicians about seven hundred years later. Consisting of 22 letters, all consonants, this Semitic language became used throughout the Mediterranean, including in the Levant, the Iberian peninsula, North Africa and southern Europe.
The Greeks built on the Phoenician alphabet by adding vowels sometime around 750 BC. Considered the first true alphabet, it was later appropriated by the Latins (later to become the Romans) who combined it with notable Etruscan characters including the letters “F” and “S”. Although ancient Latin omitted G, J, V (or U)*, W, Y and Z, by about the third century, the Roman alphabet looked very similar to our modern English, containing every letter except J, U (or V)* and W.
[*V and U have a complicated shared history. Both were used throughout the Middle Ages, although they were considered a single letter until quite recently.]
Old English
The history of writing in Britain begins with the Anglo-Saxons in the fifth century AD. With ties to Scandinavia and other North Seas cultures, ancient Anglo-Saxon writing, called futhorc, was a runic language. Flexible, new runes were routinely added such that, although it first appeared in England with 26 characters, by the time of its demise (by the 11^th century AD), it had 33.
In the seventh century AD, the Latin alphabet introduced by Christian missionaries had begun to take hold. By 1011, a formal list of the Old English alphabet was made and included all of our present letters except J, U (or V)* and W. The ampersand and five uniquely English letters, designated ond, wynn, thorn, eth and ash, were included.
As far from Modern English as Public Enemy, Old English continues to be taught in high schools and colleges when our young people are forced to grapple with things like Beowulf (translated):

HWÆT, WE GAR-DEna in geardagum, 
þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon, 
hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon! 
oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, 
monegum mægþum meodosetla ofteah, 
egsode eorlas, syððanærest wearð
feasceaft funden; he þæs frofre gebad,
weox under wolcnum weorðmyndum þah,
oð þæt him æghwylc ymbsittendra
ofer hronrade hyran scolde, 
gomban gyldan; þæt wæs god cyning! 
Ðæm eafera wæs æfter cenned 
geong in geardum, þone God sende 
folce to frofre; fyrenðearfe ongeat, 
þe hie ær drugon aldorlease 
lange hwile; him þæs Liffrea, 
wuldres Wealdend woroldare forgeaf, 
Beowulf wæs breme — blæd wide sprang— 
Scyldes eafera Scedelandum in. 
Swa sceal geong guma gode gewyrcean, 
fromum feohgiftumon fæder bearme . . .

Middle English
Shortly after the Old English alphabet was first set down, the Normans invaded (1066 AD). English as a language was relegated primarily to the low born, with the nobility, clergy and scholars speaking and/or writing in Norman or Latin.
By the 13^th century when writing in English began to become more prominent again, the language reflected two centuries of Norman rule. The Old English letters thorn and eth were replaced by “th”; wynn eventually became u-u or “w”; and the other English letters were discarded.
This form of the language, called Middle English, while still difficult at times, is comprehensible to the modern English reader. Recall Geoffrey Chaucer’s Wife of Bath from Canterbury Tales (translated):

Experience, though noon auctoritee
Were in this world, were right ynogh to me
To speke of wo that is in marriage;
For, lordynges, sith I twelf yeer was of age
Thonked be God, that is eterne on lyve,
Housebondes at chirche-dore I have had five-
For I so ofte have ywedded bee-
And alle were worthy men in hir degree.
But me was toold, certeyn, nat longe agoon is,
That sith that Crist ne wente nevere but onis
To weddyng in the Cane of Galilee,
That by the same ensample, taughte he me,
That I ne sholde wedded be but ones.
Herkne eek, lo, which a sharp word for the nones,

Modern English 
With the introduction of the printing press (invented by Johann Gutenberg in 1448) to Great Britain in the mid 15^th century by William Caxton, English became more standardized and modern English appeared. Sometime in the mid-16^th century, V and U were split into two letters, with U becoming the vowel, and V, the consonant. In 1604, Robert Cawdrey published the first English dictionary, the Table Alphabeticall, and about this time, J was added to create the modern English alphabet we know today.  And the rest, as they say, is history.